Cultural Expression and Conflict Resolution:
The use of Art in Mitigating the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict
Julien
Thomas, November 24, 2009
In September 2000,
former-Israeli President Ariel Sharon paid a symbolic visit to the Temple Mount
in the West Bank of Jerusalem. An important spiritual landmark for both the
Jewish and Muslim faiths, the Temple Mount is regarded as the holiest site in
Judaism, and Muslims believe it to be the location of the Prophet Muhammadıs
ascent to heaven. To many Palestinians, Sharonıs act demonstrated Israeli
control of a sacred Islamic site. His visit is widely regarded as a primary
cause of the Second Intifada, the most recent period of intense violence
amongst Israelis and Palestinians. Considering such a simple act could be so
contentious illustrates how cultural expressions, such as narratives of
tradition, sanctity, and legitimacy, play an influential role in violent
conflict situations. Yet just as cultural expressions can exacerbate violence,
they also offer opportunities for resolution.
This
paper will focus on a particular aspect of cultural expressions in conflict
situations. Art, in its broadest definition, creates the perceptions and values
that inform our political beliefs and actions.[i]
In politics, and modern life in general, it would be impossible for people to
observe directly and influence everything that affects them. We rely on
television, newspapers, and word of mouth for our current events. Our actions
are informed by the fairy tales we were told as children, the songs we hear on
the radio, the novels we read, and the popular culture we subconsciously
consume every day. These are all examples of cultural expressions: artifacts or
behaviours which generate ideas about what we value and fear, who we vote for,
and how we respond to conflict.[ii]
Cultural expressions are especially influential in ethnic conflicts, as they
can unite or divide individuals belonging to certain groups, and further create
stereotypes that lead to oppression and violence.
The aim of this essay
is to explore the role of art in mitigating conflict, using the
Israeli-Palestinian conflict as a case study. This conflict is one of the most
complex on the planet, involving many disputed and interrelated issues. For
example, both Jews and Arabs perceive themselves as victims of religious
persecution, which supports competing claims of legitimacy.[iii]
Conservative groups refuse to recognize other stakeholders in the conflict, and
resist compromises towards negotiation.[iv]
Resource scarcity threatens to deprive large populations of basic necessities
such as food and water.[v]
As a result of the multiplicity of issues, this essay does not seek to
undertake the impossible task of resolving the conflict in its entirety, but
rather, to examine a particular subject cultural expression that both
exacerbates the situation, and offers the possibility to alleviate it. For the
conflict to be resolved, stakeholders must negotiate a myriad of issues.
Perceptions, attitudes, fears and hopes that occupy public opinion at present
obstruct any possibility of negotiation. As shown by Sharonıs symbolic visit,
political leaders and organizations are able to manipulate public perceptions
and attitudes, and the conflict persists. I propose that art can create the political
space for much needed dialogue, and empower individuals to reclaim their
history, construct new identities, and resolve conflicts.
In addition to drawing from numerous theoretical perspectives, I will
refer to two sources in particular for information on Palestinian cultural
expression and identity in Israel. The first is The Other Side of Israel, a biographical
account of everyday life in Israel written by Susan Nathan, an English Jew who
immigrated to Israel via the Law of Return, and now lives in the Israeli
Palestinian town of Tamra. Nathanıs religious upbringing and place of residence
provide her with an informed perspective that qualifies her analysis of the
situation in Israel. The second source is The Subjective Atlas of Palestine, a collection of
works edited by Dutch designer Annelys de Vet, which portrays aspects of
everyday life in Israel and the occupied territories from the perspectives of
thirty Palestinian artists. The Atlas received an award for ³Best
Designed Book of 2007,² from the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam, and was
nominated for a 2009 INDEX: AWARD, the largest monetary design award in the
world.
These particular sources provide a rich understanding of cultural
expression and identity from a Palestinian point of view. I acknowledge that
Israeli Jewish perceptions are essential in understanding the conflict from a
comprehensive perspective, but the analysis of Palestinian cultural identity is
useful in two ways. First, the current situation in Israel is highly favourable
towards Jewish forms of cultural expression, and therefore this essay aims to
balance this bias. Second, the analysis applied to Palestinian cultural
expression and identity in this essay can be applied to other cultural
expressions, including Israeli Jewish culture.
Cultural expression in ethnic conflict can be situated within two
primary theories that address the causes of ethnic conflict, primordialism and constructivism. These analytical
tools are useful in providing insights into the characteristics of ethnic
conflicts, yet they have been clearly unsuccessful in contributing to the
peaceful settlement of disputes. For example, many ethnic conflicts have either
ended through violence, as in the case of Rwanda, or they continue to destroy
livelihoods with no end in sight, as in Darfur.
Primordialists view
the causes of conflict as rooted in the make-up or characteristics of a group.
Fundamental and immutable differences of religion, values and culture exist
between groups, which make it impossible for them to coexist together.[vi]
According to Kaufmann, there is no hope for these competing differences to be
reconciled. Kaufman proposes that three solutions exist under such situations:
complete victory by one side over the other; temporary suppression of the
conflict by third party military intervention; or separation and
self-governance.[vii]
Yet I believe
primordialism oversimplifies ethnic conflict by disregarding its history. For
example, while ethnic conflicts have persisted throughout history, modern
conflicts involving nationalism are a relatively new phenomenon. Weberıs
examination of French nationalism posits that the national identity of rural
French peasants only began to solidify in the late 19th century.[viii]
I propose that the modern creation of French nationalism clearly contradicts
the idea that ethnic national identities are of a fundamental, long-standing
nature. Additionally, the primordialist theory becomes problematic when one
takes into consideration the unavoidable fact that groups evolve over time,
through intermarriage, relocation, and institutional changes. The changing
nature of groups brings into question the possibility of fundamental
differences surviving over time. Regardless, many groups indeed view themselves
as fundamentally different. As Connor claims, ³no arsenal of facts concerning
their common ancestral background can convince either the Serbs or Croats that
they share a common national identity.²[ix]
He continues to propose that understanding these situations does not require
knowledge of the ³facts,² but of commonly held perceptions of facts.[x]
According to
constructivist theory, seemingly fundamental differences are mere perceptions
and beliefs. Constructivists view the sources of ethnic conflict as socially
constructed ideas and institutions, which differentiate and benefit some groups
and individuals over others.[xi]
Brubaker claims that concepts of ethnicity, race and nationalism are ³not
things in the world, but perspectives on the world.²[xii]
Constructivists claim that an important correlation exists between socially
constructed ideas and group identities. Susan Nathan recalls a situation in
which Israeli Palestinian children shouted names and threw rocks as she walked
by. Nathan came to understand the childrenıs actions as a result of how Jews
are portrayed in the media as menacing, oppressive and violent. These children
could not differentiate between the images they were shown on television, and
the reality of Jews like Nathan.[xiii]
It is important to note that while constructed ethnic identities need not rely
on the existence of real ³ethnicities,² such a concept has real consequences.
Constructivists point to the fact that values and institutions have
historically changed over time, and propose that differences in religion,
values, and culture that contribute to ethnic conflicts are reconcilable.[xiv]
Without the possibility that perceptions and attitudes are subject to change,
any attempt to mitigate conflicts through the creation or redefinition of cultural
expressions would be impossible.
Constructivist theory is useful in explaining the central role of
perceptions in conflict situations, yet it does not take into account the
material conditions of ethnic conflicts. As Nathan explains, ³although
religious and moral sentiments have polluted the debate [on either side] the
essence of the conflict is rival political demands from two national groups for
sovereignty over the same territory.²[xv]
While disputes may be fraught with differences in values and irresolvable
perceptions, the fundamental basis for such conflicts often lie in tangible
conflicts of interest over resources, institutions, and power. Nevertheless,
the material conditions of ethnic conflict are experienced through socially constructed
perceptions and values. Any accurate portrayal of ethnic conflicts must take
into account the hard facts, as well as the perceptions, values, and hopes that
represent and often exacerbate them.
Constructivism provides a theoretical
context for the use of cultural expressions to resolve conflict. If perceptions
and values are socially constructed, then art is an instrument of this
construction. As stated earlier, cultural expressions such as art and
literature shape our ideas of courage and cowardice, as well as hope and fear.
We understand the complexities of war through paintings by Picasso and Goya,
and conceptions of good and evil within human relations through the works of
Shakespeare. Cultural expressions inform our ways of knowing and experiencing
the world, and this process is no less true in conflict situations. In regards
to the Israeli-Palestinian situation, public perceptions are fraught with
misunderstanding, fear, and a lack of recognition of the other sideıs legitimacy.[xvi]
The Subjective Atlas of Palestine is a collection of visual works
that create and redefine Palestinian cultural expressions, helping to bring
about recognition, legitimacy, and dialogue.
The Atlas is but one example
of how art has been used to resolve conflicts. Perhaps the most well known use
of art in conflict situations is Augusto Boalıs Theatre of the Oppressed. Boal developed a
theory and method of theatrical performance whereby audience members
collaborate with performers to recreate narratives, explore identities, and
resolve conflicts.[xvii]
The use of art to examine attitudes and perceptions, promote democratic
discourse and participation, and to empower individual and group liberties, has
become increasingly recognized by the term ³community cultural development.²[xviii]
This relatively new field holds promise in influencing the resolution of ethnic
conflicts, as illustrated by the analysis of the Atlas below.
The first way in which the Atlas creates and redefines cultural
expressions is through the reclamation of Palestinian history. Without a
positive history to celebrate, Palestinians have nothing to be proud of, and
nothing to hope for. As Nathan explains, ³[Palestinians] do not even have the
right to a history: the state refuses to remember [their] story.²[xix]
This is illustrated in the example of the 1948 Arab-Israeli war, in which over
750,000 Palestinians were forcibly removed from their homes.[xx]
Arabs refer to this event as ³the Catastrophe,² or al-Nakba in Arabic, while
Jews refer to it as ³the War of Liberation.² The contrast between these
terms demonstrates the extent to which Israeli and Palestinian historical
narratives conflict. In spite of this contrast, only the Jewish narrative is
officially recognized by the state. Nathan explains how schoolteachers are
banned from teaching about al-Nakba, or even the connection of
Israeli-Palestinians to those living in the West Bank and Gaza.[xxi]
It is no coincidence that the history of Palestinian art is also absent.
When Israeli Jewish art historian Gannit Ankori chose to lecture on images of
Jerusalem from the perspective of Palestinian artists in 1984, she soon found
that there was virtually no existing research literature on the subject.[xxii]
In the Atlas, art director Mohanad Yaqubi shows images of intricately crafted
traditional Palestinian dress (Figure 1).[xxiii]
Bright colours and creative patterns suggest that these garments were created
for important cultural events. The high degree of skill, attention to detail,
and creativity required to produce such garments implies that Palestinian
culture is historically rich, and something to be proud of. This contrasts with
stereotypical perceptions of Palestinian culture as unsophisticated and
worthless. 
Figure 1
Artist and cartoonist
Baha Boukhary shares his fatherıs British-Palestinian passport and
identification papers, revealing the official status that Palestinians enjoyed
just sixty years ago.[xxiv]
Boukhary also displays postcards of his home, a popular landmark for Christian
tourists that has been in the family for generations. Regrettably, Boukhary
cannot live in or visit his home, since he is not allowed to enter Jerusalem as
a resident of the occupied territories. These artists become creators of a
history that has been denied them. Official historical narratives often
describe the past in terms of powerful individuals and momentous events. Rather
than offering an equally sizeable counter narrative, Yaqubi and Boukhary
present histories that are grounded in personal connections to the past. In
celebrating their personal histories, they empower others to do the same.
As John Berger explains, ³the past is not for living in; it is a well of
conclusions from which we draw in order to act.²[xxv]
History is essential because it illuminates our present situation, and presents
examples of how we should act in the future. In this light, the Atlas serves to create a
Palestinian identity that is based on positive examples of Palestinian history.
Yet Palestinian identity is also based upon modern perceptions of Palestinians
as fundamentalist militants. In Pedagogy of the Oppressed, Paolo Friere
introduces the concept of ³internalization of the oppressor,² whereby
individuals may identify with negative attitudes of themselves as held by others,
and passively accept them as truth.[xxvi]
He then proposes that individuals are able to shape their own identities
through a ³transformation of consciousness,² in which they confront the
cultural expressions that oppress them. Friereıs work was instrumental in
providing the conceptual basis for Augusto Boalıs Theatre of the Oppressed.[xxvii]
In an ironic take on life in the occupied territories, NGO coordinator
Maissoon Sharkawi has created road signs that play on the idea of normalcy and
modernity.[xxviii] The
common yieldı traffic sign is recognizable by anyone who owns a car it is a
symbol of modern transportation systems and economic development. The yieldı
sign also implies cooperation with authority and rules, but in its strongest
sense, to yield is to surrender. Sharkawi has placed a tank within the yieldı
triangle, warning drivers to ³watch out: army is near by.² By transforming the
yieldı symbol from an everyday road sign to an image of violence and
oppression, Sharkawi questions the legitimacy of military occupation. In
another example, graphic designer and photographer Majdi Hadid contrasts images
of the Israeli security barrier with idyllic photos of Palestine that one might
find in a tourist brochure (Figures 2 and 3).[xxix]
This juxtaposition provokes the viewer to question the normalcy associated with
Israeli segregation and surveillance in the occupied territories, and asks
whether another situation is possible. Sharkawi and Hadid are
Figure 2
Figure 3
just two of the countless number of artists who
manipulate everyday acts and objects to expose our perceptions and values. For
example, UK artist Banksy has recently garnered critical acclaim for his
satirical graffiti that aims to question authority and popular culture.[xxx]
The ability to reflect and interact with symbols of power and oppression can be
subtle, yet effective in confronting and recreating cultural expressions.
In place of negative perceptions, artists in the Atlas have created new
identities that express Palestinian life in a more intelligent and inclusive
manner. Fine arts student Madj Abdel Hamid explains how Palestinians as a group
are well engaged with world issues, with extremely high literacy and school
drop out rates, and noting that more than 95% have televisions in their homes.[xxxi]
These figures indicate that Palestinians are knowledgeable and competent. An
excerpt from the current events publication This Week in Palestine shows the large
number and wide variety of cultural events that take place throughout Palestine
in a single month.[xxxii]
From film, dance, and theatre events, to music concerts and childrenıs
activities, Palestine offers an array of opportunities that rival the arts and
cultural situations of many Western cities. The diversity of cultural events
shows that Palestinians are capable of producing valuable cultural capital, and
their creativity is recognized.
The effectiveness of the Atlas can be seen in its method of
delivery. The book promotes collective Palestinian identity, but it comes from
the direction of individuals. The artists present examples of Palestinian
culture - from a schematic drawing and explanation of an argeelah (or hookah),
to demonstrating twelve ways to eat chickpeas that express a personal
connection.[xxxiii] In
presenting recognizable cultural expressions, the artists invite others to
identify with them. The simplicity of these examples also creates the space for
others to do the same. Lastly, these cultural expressions are not limited to
Palestinian identity Israelis eat chickpeas too. The effect is an expression
of cultural identity that promotes participation and inclusion among
Palestinians and Israelis alike.
The Atlas also counteracts the efforts of political entities to
manipulate cultural expressions in two important ways. Firstly, the bookıs
ability to empower individual creation of identity contrasts with political
organizations and leaders, who claim to represent, and in turn define their
constituencies. If political leaders lose influence over their constituencies,
they may be forced to act in the interests of the population instead of
controlling the agenda. Additionally, the Atlas provides an example of how art
can counteract imagined perceptions created by political leaders and
organizations. Perceived threats, events, and issues may create fear and
hatred, and promote discrimination and violence. By presenting accurate and
realistic descriptions, from intricately crafted traditional dress to high
levels of literacy, art can counter the political manipulation of perceptions
and disarm political propaganda.[xxxiv]
Through reclaiming history, questioning negative stereotypes, and
recreating cultural expressions and identity, the Atlas examines established
social constructions and encourages their rethinking. Art can be seen as a
window through which we are able to examine our perceptions, attitudes and
values. In situations of conflict, where individuals may be unable to separate
themselves from immediate fears for survival, this distancing aspect is
extremely important. Without the ability to reflect on the situation, people
continue to accept stereotypes that reinforce their negative perceptions.
Nathan explains how she was able to reflect on the conflict while watching a
documentary with Palestinian friends: ³I watched the film through my Arab
friendıs eyes, learning exactly how they see us Jews as occupiers and
oppressors. It made me question very deeply how I had been able to identify
with [my] country²[xxxv]
It is ultimately our ability to question the socially constructed nature of our
perceptions that can lead to recognition and dialogue.
While the previous examples illustrate how art may profoundly recreate
and define perceptions and identities, the ability of art to create the opportunity
for dialogue is perhaps its most influential aspect. Traditional dialogue-type
communication entails multiple parties assembling together to discuss the
substantive issues at hand.[xxxvi]
Participants are able to communicate in person through verbal and visual cues,
to address each otherıs comments and questions, and to collaboratively examine
issues. Art can promote dialogue in two ways. The first way is in the act of
collaborative creation. A group of artists may discuss substantive issues while
in the act of producing visual art. In this case, the work of art is an outcome
of the parties collaboratively examining issues together. The second way lies
in the works of art themselves. In situations where face-to-face dialogue may
be impossible because certain parties are not recognized as legitimate, works
of art can promote widespread discourse that leads to reflection and
recognition.[xxxvii] In
these ways, art becomes a critical a vehicle for dialogue, and in turn a
catalyst for social change.
Despite the ability of cultural expressions to promote recognition,
legitimacy, and dialogue, it is important to acknowledge their limitations in
resolving conflict. As stated earlier, conflicts such as the
Israeli-Palestinian situation involve a number of interrelated issues, which no
single theory or policy can resolve. And yet all issues share the commonality
of being presented as social constructions, which are subject to change. Susan
Nathanıs revelation illustrates how art affords the possibility for personal
understanding, which can lead to social transformation. Herein lies the promise
of art: to aid stakeholders in understanding the socially constructed nature of
issues, and to redefine these issues in terms that are more conducive to their
resolution. The indicators of success in this task are difficult to measure, as
they require gradual changes in perceptions and attitudes, and the creation of
networks across war torn populations.[xxxviii]
Nevertheless, cultural expressions inform our everyday actions, and art holds
the potential to profoundly influence the resolution of conflicts in Israel and
across the globe.